Art Appreciation Unit 4 Ip Essay - 1084 Words

From the Baroque Period through the Romantic Age May 20, 2010 Unit 4 Individual Project ART205-1002B-12 American InterContinental University Abstract During this assignment I will talk about three types of Work of Art from three different artists from the Baroque period through the postmodern era. 1). Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio; 2) Rembrandt van Rijn; and 3) Peter Paul Rubens, these three artists were known for their religious theme in their art work. The naturalism that was visibly demonstrated in each of the artist work with high contrast of lighting that noticeably appeared in these paintings. Each artist was well known and respected for their work. The three artists Works of Art that I have chosen are:†¦show more content†¦Until the late 19th century many biographers and art scholars deliberately ignored Caravaggio work. Some people felt as if his work was to natural or just ordinary. (Sayre, 2010) His work of art was characterized by displaying weakness or humankind. Sometime people had a difficult time trying to figure out if his painting was religious or not. In fact the contrast in his paintings between light and dark tones was evident in the spiritual content and its representation in the painting. (Sayre, 2010) Caravaggio became ill on a beach in Port Ercole. Caravaggio passed away July 18, 1610 after battling with malaria which he fought to overcome. Rembrandt van Rijn: The Resurrection of Christ c. 1635-39 (Oil on Canvas) Description of Rembrandt Work of Art The Resurrection of Christ is from the Baroque period. This work of art portrays the sense of dramatic antagonism that Caravaggio achieved by manipulating light across full range of tones, changing the intensity and transforming its radiance this was done so that every beam and shadow expressed a dissimilar emotional content. (Sayre, 2010) In Rembrandt painting he focused on using emotional contrast between light and dark tones to emphasize the emotional difference. Here you can see pure light radiating out of the tomb of darkness. Christ himself begins to rise from the tomb in the light of true symbolicShow MoreRelatedIp 4 Art735 Words   |  3 Pages Baroque Period Unit 4 IP Art Appreciation Nicole Woodford American Intercontinental University May 6, 2012 Abstract â€Å"Baroque was born in Italy, and later adopted in France, Germany, Netherlands, and Spain. The word baroque was first applied to the art of period from the late 1500s to the late 1700s, by critics in the late nineteen century. Baroque covers a wide range of styles and artists. 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Absolute Underezding Essay Example For Students

Absolute Underezding Essay An elephant was brought to a group of blind men who had never encountered such an animal before. One felt a leg and reported that an elephant is a great living pillar. Another felt the trunk and reported that an elephant is a great snake. Another felt a tusk and reported that an elephant is like a sharp ploughshare. And so on. And then they all quarreled together, each claiming that his own account was the truth and therefore all the others false (traditional parable). None of the accounts that the blind men made about the nature of the elephant are absolute truths, nor are the accounts false. An absolute truth, or one that is true for all, can not be achieved because of the conezt motion of circumezces of who said it, to whom, when, where, why, and how it was said. Instead of absolute truths, the concepts or beliefs that the blind men claim are viewpoints that each one clarifies the nature of the elephant. Everybody has learned to see things from his or her own sense of reason and l ogic. The many things that people experience throughout their lifetimes, help to determine the judgments toward the different issues and objects that they encounter. Because individuals has his or her own sense of reason and logic, the perceptions that people encounter are ultimately true, and not false. Life does not contain one truth for any idea or object, but truths can be found in ones perception. It is difficult to determine that anything is the absolute truth. One should not prove that any object contains a true meaning, but should develop conceptions surrounding the object. Attempting to prove anything then would be difficult, if not impossible. Our senses from smell to values to reality may differ from person to person. What may be true to one person may be different for another. Because everybody has different perceptions about life, it is difficult to weigh the content of any concept. Every account, of its own, is formed to be the truth of the one individual who assumes i t. The variety of concepts may have the virtue of being considered. This is how people develop a deeper sense of underezding for all objects. Truth is achieved through the concept and not the object itself. Because many individuals hold different perceptions, they have many truths to consider, or not to consider. For example, it would be impossible to determine, whether or not, the cutting of trees is either good or bad. One might have the conception that cutting trees destroys homes for birds and other animals. Another person might have the conception that cutting trees is necessary to satisfy the need to provide homes for humans. Whatever concept is understood from the object, may be the truth. Just because there may be other viewpoints to this situation, does not mean that there has to be false statements. The tree can be used for many uses from medicine to paper to boats and none of these views would be wrong. The tree remains to be a tree, but the values of the tree can differe ntiate, depending on who is using it. The conception of God, or the non-conception of God, is another issue that many people make the mistake of trying to prove. A well recognized philosopher, Soren Kierkegaard states, For if God does not exist it would of course be impossible to prove it; and if he does exist it would be folly to attempt it. Demonstrating the existence ornon- existence of God only produces reasons for belief, not the actual proof that God exists. Kierkegaard also claims, between God and his works there exists an absolute relationship: God is not a name but a concept( Kierkegaard 72). The relationship between man and God is a concept. A person with belief in God, cannot prove its existence through his or her own relationship with God. Kierkegaard adds again, The works of God are such that only God can perform them We have nobasis of proving Gods works, nor do we know what kind of works God uses on different individuals. Yet, some religious groups have made the mist ake to try to enforce their own religion upon different individuals. Some religious groups claim that their religion is the only true religion, which is very untrue. This may be a reason why religion has been a major factor in previous wars and movements. The attempt to follow one truth, instead of freely allowing individuals and societies to follow their own truth, has led many people into frustration and hostility. All concepts are so dynamic that the truth that one believes may appear to be self-ironic. A person may believe that television promotes violence in kids, exposes the use of profanity, and stupidity. Another person my believe that television may be educational because the exposure of all these problems will form into underezding. Although both may be perfectly true to each other, the two issues are found to be to be contradictory. Thedisagreement does not make the other statement false, but establishes another truth. .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .postImageUrl , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:hover , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:visited , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:active { border:0!important; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:active , .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u494ac73ca6bb5e0ea357bff51f83fabe:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Vietnam War - Vietnam Soldiers - They Carried Ghos Essay If each of the blind men spend less time on proving his own account and spend more time underezding the different truths thatexist, they may discover that all perceptions of the elephant can be taken into consideration. The men may discover that the elephant is a great living pillar, a great snake, and like a sharp ploughshare at the same time, or at different times. The blind men may even come to the conclusion that the elephant may be neither of these. The opinions of the blind men may be coneztly in motion because of the acceptance of the many viewpoints that currently exist and may exist in the future. Although the elephant may stay the same, opinions about it may change and adapt. Works CitedBowie, Lee G., Michaels, Meredith W., Solomon, Robert C. Twenty Questions An Introduction to Philosophy. Harcourt Brace Company, 3rd ed. Kierkegaard 72- 75 Handout. Traditional Parable

Traditional Chinese and Western Medical Approaches an Example of the Topic Health Essays by

Traditional Chinese and Western Medical Approaches Culture has played a great role in developing different approaches to healing. The Western approach is based on many studies and scientific research while Traditional Chinese Medicine, although not as fully-researched as the Western approach, owes its length of existence to its impressive results. Western medical approach is still the one being practiced in hospitals but The Traditional Chinese Medical system is already gaining popularity. It is best to find out more about these two approaches to determine which is a more practical and effective way of healing. Need essay sample on "Traditional Chinese and Western Medical Approaches" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed What is Western Medicine? According to MedicineNet.com (par. 1), Western or Conventional medicine is practiced by the degree holders of M.D. (medical doctor) or D.O. (doctor of osteopathy) and by their allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, psychologists and registered nurses. One way to understanding Allopathy, another term for Western Medicine, is through its doctors perception of the human body. According to Mike Adams, these physicians launch offensives on the patients body due to their perception that this is battleground on which wars are waged against invaders and tumors. (Western Medicine Believes, par. 2) Once a symptom of a disease like cancer is diagnosed, the allopathic doctor will attack it with different kinds of chemically formulated medicine or with artillery like surgical instruments. In another article, Adams says that conventional Medicine lays its foundations on Western concepts that believe that a body is only a collection of its parts, (Systems of Medicine, par. 4) and that by focusing on each part individually, you can understand the whole. History of Western Medicine Hippocrates of Cos is often hailed as the father of medicine (Mayeaux, par. 3). This famous health practitioner came from Greece and survived in the timeline of around the four to five thousand years before Christ. He understood that nature has the best cures and that the doctor is just a modifier. He tutored his students based on the principle that cures are there to counterattack the symptoms of an illness. People of his time were against dissections but he did what he could to further understand the human anatomy. He was known to have treated skull fractures. After Hippocrates, Galen became the renowned physician. He used his predecessors studies up to a certain extent but formed his own theories which were not as good as Hippocrates. He believed more on his theories than on observation so in the end, he became a detriment to knowing more cures (Mayeaux, pars. 7-9). During the first four centuries, the Catholic Church became the propagators of medicine because of the numerous plagues and invasions However, because of their practicality, whenever something was cured by a perceived object, the treatment is just repeated when a same symptom arose. This strengthened the belief in amulets and other wrong cures (Catholic Encyclopedia, pars. 14-15). The first recordings of a hospital was in around 820 which showed that the monastery of St. Gall already had rooms for the sick, a pharmacy, and room for the doctor. This started the trend with other monasteries in Europe (Mayeaux, par. 33). In 1140, King Roger of Sicily decreed that doctors can only perform medical duties if they had formal studies and by the 13th or 14th century, medicine became a university degree. Because of this formal approach to curing, studies and research fully developed during these times. Herbal medications became popular and cleanliness in hospitals became important. Because guns became widespread, surgery also improved (pars. 37 29). Medical literature developed around the 15th century because of the great advancements in printing. During this period, more hospitals were built and competed with one another. This greatly improved services and cures (pars. 50-54). With printed books on medicine, universities teaching courses and hospitals being constructed, Western medical approach easily developed to become the science that is now in place in modern society. History of Traditional Chinese Medicine Books acknowledge the first historical proof of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) to be seen was round 20 centuries ago, TCM may actually go back more than 5000 years (Traditional Chinese Medicine, par. 1). Confusion regarding its history is hard to clarify because TCM records were based on legendary mythical figures. Fu Xi, a cultural hero, was the one who developed the eight trigrams that gave way to the concept of the I Ching or Book of Changes. Herbal medicine was founded by a mythical emperor named Shen Nong. Legend has it that this emperor even tested hundreds of herbs on himself (even the 70 toxic ones) to find cures. These healing concoctions were verbally passed to every generation because the written word has not been invented yet (par. 1) The third legendary figure is not a person but the oldest medical textbook called Hung-Di Nei-Jing (Yellow Emperors Cannon of Internal Medicine). The book must have been written between 800 to 200 B.C. It includes many theories of TCM such as the meridian theory and acupuncture (par. 2). The theoretical foundations of the five elements, yin and yang, and better comprehension of acupuncture developed during the Zhou dynasty (1122 to 256 B.C.). Stone needles were replaced by metal. Somewhere during this era, a Chinese doctor called Bian Que started using pulse to diagnose sicknesses which he cured through acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage and moxibustion (therapy using an herb called moxa). Legend has it that he was summoned to cure a crown prince but when he arrived, the funeral preparations were already in place. He diagnosed the prince to have been in coma and used acupuncture plus herbal medicine to revive him. This was the start of his popularity as a miracle worker who can bring the dead back to life. He refuted this by claiming that the prince was just in coma but his legend lived on (par. 3). Under the Han dynast that a popular doctor, Wang Shuhe, was able to discover that there was a relationship between pulse, physiology and pathology (par. 5). Under the Western Jin dynasty, another doctor called Huang Funi wrote a book called the Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion. It is considered a classic which has a dozen volumes and 128 chapters (par. 6). A Chinese alchemist named Ge Hong (281-341 A.D.) was able to write about many symptoms of different diseases (including tuberculosis and small pox) and recorded various formulas to cure these illnesses in the Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies (par. 6). Classical Chinese medicine developed very well but by the 1930s, the National government of China prohibited the use of this approach. The ban was lifted thirty years after by Mao Zedong (par. 12). This ruler is also responsible for ensuring that the classical approach was formalized and this gave rise to what is now known as Traditional Chinese Medicine. This gave TCM a proper curriculum in Chinese medical schools and is now being studied not only by Chinese but other Asians and cultures as well. Comparing Western Medicine with TCM TCM and Western medicine approach the human body from different perspectives. TCM sees the individual as part of the cosmos and encompasses mans physiological, emotional and moral balance based on the natural cycle of the earth. It perceives the patients physique as a language of processes rather than structure and tissues and organs (The Body In Balance, par. 5). Conventional medicine, on the other hand, looks at the human body as an anatomy made up of different parts. Diagnosis is based on finding which part of the body is malfunctioning and cure will be concentrated on this area to make it work again. To a Western medical doctor, the body is like a machine that just needs to be tinkered to get it in running condition. An advantage that TCM has over allopathy is in its natural forms of medicine. Western medical solutions often require chemicals that are regarded as toxins by the human body. Another advantage going for TCM is cost. TCM offers many cures to the same diseases that Western medicine heals but the overall price is relatively cheaper and less invasive to the human body. TCM views the body as having an energy that balances itself to the environment while health is described by conventional medicine as the absence of pain or any symptoms of disease. Therefore, a disease for TCM doctors, means there is disharmony within the individual while allopathy would look at it as a digression of the body from the healthy condition. The positive outlook of TCM views symptoms as signs that the body is attempting to heal it self while conventional medicine sees it as a physiological situation that needs to be attacked and controlled. TCM would regard a series of diseases as a result of various effects of things that have destroyed the natural balance within the human body. This takes into account the persons relationships with the people and environment around him. Therefore, TCM requires a more personal approach. Medical doctors would look at each sickness individually. These physicians focus their attention on what is wrong and professionalism puts a wall between the patient and his doctor. The problem, however, of TCM is that it has not taken into account the different harmful inventions that man has made (ex. Pollution). Western medicine, on the other hand, ignores the existence of the energy that Chinese believe in so all diagnosis are merely based on physical evidences that occur. Observation, trial and error are the basis of allopathy. This can mean a series of pain before the healing process is finally made. The strength of TCM is on preventive medicine that considers lifestyle before diseases can develop while Western medicine cures what already has developed. Both approaches are very important in the world of healing and it would be to mans greatest advantage if these can find ways to integrate themselves in finding better cures for the health of mankind. Works Cited Adams, Mike. Western Medicine Believes Health is a War, and the Body is a Battleground that Should be Assaulted. News Target Network. par.2. 4 pars. 30 January 2004. News Target Network. 14 May 2007 Adams, Mike. Systems of Medicine Explained. News Target Network. par. 4. 01 May 2006. News Target Network. 14 May 2007 The Catholic Encyclopedia. History of Medicine. Volume X. Published 1911. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York. 80 pars. 14 May 2007 Definition of Conventional Medicine. 2007. Medicine Net. 17 pars.14 May 2007 Mayeaux, E.J., Jr. A History of Western Medicine and Surgery. 1989. Louisiana State University Medical Center Shreveport. 56 pars.14 May 2007

Active Audience

Active Audience Audience is important in any communication process because the media constructs and conveys information for the people. Moreover, it would not exist if there were no public1. Therefore, an audience is the group of people or the public to which information is being conveyed to.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Active Audience specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this case, an active audience is that which assesses and interprets the information that is passed by the media and reacts according to the facts conveyed. The active audience may reply, tell to another person or buy a product as a result of the information received; more generally, people make active discretions according to what they find out from the media. Its importance to the theorization of audience dates back to the 1970s and 1980s when more researchers and theorists, such as David Gauntlett, Frank Biocca, among others, became increasingly focused o n media audience2. Most of them centered on gaining more useful understanding of what people do with the media in their daily lives. Vital characteristics identified include the selectivity by the active audience on the type of media they choose to use, the utilitarianism of active audience to use media to meet their needs and goals intentionality as the media content works on to achieve purposeful and complete involvement of the active audiences, in order to influence it. Polysemy Polysemy is the association of a word to more than one distinct meaning. A polyseme is a word or phrase with multiple meanings. In relation to media audience and the theorization of the audience, a word may have more than one meaning when it is received by the different audiences which may differ from what was intended by the sender of the information3. The audience may interpret information conveyed based on its social background or surroundings or previously received data that is related to the one rece ived at the moment. Therefore, different receivers of the same information may have different understanding of the same information. Therefore, the texts are viewed as polysemic and related to gratification theory which discusses how users proactively search for media that will not only meet a given need but enhance knowledge, social interactions and diversion4.Advertising Looking for assessment on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More That is why, the whole society should be very interested in the way of how the media are accepted and work on further to see its influence on people and their lives. According to this approach, it is also emphasized that people decide on their own what type of media to select which will be perfect for them. The theory also states that media is necessary for the current society as a way to meet and satisfy individuals needs and desires5. To sum everything up, it can be concluded that media should always remain competitive in the sphere of entertainment to please its consumers. Public Sphere Public sphere is an area in social life where people can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion, influence political action. It is a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment. The public sphere can be seen as a theater in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium of talk and a realm of social life in which public opinion can be formed. Among the institutions that contribute to the make-up of a public sphere in society, the media, perhaps, perform the most critical function6. In fact, the media play an active role in the public sphere because TV, radio as well as press become innovators in the society implementing new things and promoting innovations or even some revo lutionary lifestyles and movements. In this study, it is revealed that media, as a rule, do not agree with some other power that tries to dominate or influence the society as it becomes viewed as a threat that may undermine its authority and/or limit its powers. Thus, the type of the relationships between the media and some country are defined by the level of states intervention and control over the public sphere7. As an example, the case occurred in the 18th century can be given when the opposition of the Bengal Gazette and the British government was too evident to be kept in a secret. After such impudent attacks on the authorities, any attempts of the media to criticize the politics and influence it are excluded.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Active Audience specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Reception Analysis Based on polysemic understanding of texts or information by different audiences, reception analysis goes beyond the different perception and takes a close look at what is actually going on. Reception analysis concentrates more on the audience and how the people come to a particular understanding view of a text or information8. To some extent, it is obvious that each of us will decode or translate texts in ways that reflect our personal experience. So, gender, class, occupation and personal circumstances are all important in determining how we decode a text. Once it is accepted that audiences are active, it begins to construct meanings; there are obvious implications for research methodology. Quantitative research is not suited to investigate the construction of meaning. To understand the meanings that people take from a text, it is necessary to get closer to individual audience members and engage them at a personal level-qualitative research9. Once this research technique is employed, simple answers become impossible as complexity takes over. Media Ethnography The term ethnograph y has come to be equated with virtually any qualitative research where the intent is to provide a detailed, in-depth description of everyday life and practice10. Another term, which describes this issue, is called thick description; it was suggested and developed by the anthropologist Clifford Geertz who worked on an interpretive theory of culture in the 1970s11. In this case, media ethnography will refer to the means in which mass media interprets using its own tools, and the use of qualitative methods, particularly ethnography, which distinguishes media anthropology from other disciplinary approaches.Advertising Looking for assessment on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The interest in and importance of the media increased with the development of studies examining this issue. However, these do not always use the anthropological methods to study ethnography12. Media Ethnography is important to the theorization of audience as it establishes the cause effects through its research processes and hence eliminates room for doubts in the assessment of the audience as it relates to the process of communication with the same. Bibliography Abercrombie, N, Television and Society, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1996. Bauer, RA, ‘The obstinate audience’, American Psychologist, vol. 19, no. 7, 1964, pp. 319-328. Amacher, R Lange, V, New Perspectives in German Literary Criticism, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979. Bauer, RA Bauer, A, ‘America, Mass society, and mass media’, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 16 no. 4, 1960a pp.3-66. Barwise, TP, Ehrenberg, AS Goodhardt, GJ, ‘Glued to the box: Patterns of TV repetitive-viewingâ₠¬â„¢, Journal of Communication, vol. 32, no. 5, 1982, pp. 22-29. Berelson, B, ‘The state of communication research’ Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3, 1959, pp. 1-6. Christian, SK, ‘Making sense of audience discourses: Towards a multidimensional model of mass media reception’, European Journal of Cultural Studies vol. 67, No. 3, 2000, pp. 3; 233. Iser, W, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1978. Jauss, RH, Toward an Aesthetic of Reception, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1982. Hoey, BA, What is Ethnography?, Brianhoey.com, 2011, 23 March 2012, brianhoey.com/General%20Site/general_defn-ethnography.htm. Holub, RC, Crossing Borders: Reception Theory, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction. University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1992. Wood, H, The mediated conversational floor: an interactive approach to audience reception analysis, Media Culture Society, vol. 29, no. 1, 2007, p. 75-103. Footn otes 1 H Wood, The mediated conversational floor: an interactive approach to audience reception analysis, Media Culture Society, vol. 29, no. 1, 2007, p. 75-103. 2 RH Jauss. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1982. 3 S K Christian, Making sense of audience discourses: Towards a multidimensional model of mass media reception, European Journal of Cultural Studies Vol. 67, No. 3, 2000, pp. 3; 233. 4 N Abercrombie, Television and Society, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1996. 5 RC Holub, Crossing Borders: Reception Theory, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1992. 6 TP Barwise, AS Ehrenberg GJ Goodhardt, Glued to the box: Patterns of TV repetitive-viewing, Journal of Communication, Vol. 32, no. 5, 1982, pp. 22-29. 7 RA Bauer A Bauer, America, Mass society, and mass media. Journal of Social Issues, vol. 16 no. 4, 1960a pp.3-66. 8 R Amacher V Lange, eds. New Perspectives in German Literary Criticism, Princeton Univers ity Press, Princeton, 1979. 9 RA Bauer, The obstinate audience, American Psychologist, vol. 19, no. 7, 1964b, pp. 319-328. 10 BA Hoey, What is Ethnography?, Brianhoey.com, 2011. 11 B. Berelson, The state of communication research, Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3, 1959, pp. 1-6. 12 W Iser, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1978.

A Study of the Relation of Gender and Self-Esteem in Conformity

A Study of the Relation of Gender and Self-Esteem in Conformity Abstract Conformity studies have been extensive following Asch’s (1956) classic line judgement task. Numerous factors have been purported to affect conformity behaviours. The present study investigates gender differences in conforming behaviours, and how self-esteem is associated with conformity, by replicating Asch’s original experiment. The study further explores if self-esteem is associated with conformity differently between gender groups. Twenty-two psychology undergraduates (eight males and fourteen females) were recruited. An independent t-test and bivariate correlation analyses were used to analyse the data. The results revealed 1) no gender difference in conforming behaviours, 2) a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and conforming behaviours, 3) differential association of self-esteem and conformity between males and females. In all, the results suggest that conformity is influenced by an individual’s sense of self-worth instead of a person†™s gender identity; gender may be a moderating variable in self-esteem and conformity research that future studies can explore. Gender and Self-Esteem Differences in Conformity: Revisiting Asch’s Conformity Test People are often faced with situations where they are pressurized to conform to certain norms or behaviours. Conformity is the change in behaviours in response to real or imagined pressure from members of the social environment (Gilovich, Keltner, Chen, Nisbett, 2013). In a classic study by Asch (1956), it was demonstrated that people can give obviously wrong answers even when they knew it was incorrect because of the sense of pressure from others. Specifically, participants in the study were shown three different comparison lines and were asked which line was similar to a target line presented adjacent. The participants were seated among a group of 7 to 9 and had to answer after the others indicated their response. There was only one participant in each group and the rest were confederates who gave unanimous incorrect answers on specified trials, known as critical trials. Approximately 75% of the participants conformed on at least one trial – of these participants, 5% confor med on all critical trials. Qualitative analysis after the experiment revealed that the participants knew the answers were incorrect, but felt the need to conform as they did not want to feel rejected, suggesting that people have a psychological need to fit in with a group. The yielding to group pressure because of a need to fit in is termed normative social influence, as opposed to informational social influence wherein people are uncertain of a situation and look to others for guidance (Asch, 1956; Gilovich et al, 2013). Clearly, Asch’s study explores the aspect of normative social influence. Numerous studies had since found divergent findings (Bond Smith, 1996; Mori Arai, 2010), questioning the external validity of the study. Perhaps the most important limitation to Asch’s study was the use of only male participants, indicating the need for further studies exploring gender differences. Literature on gender differences remains inconsistent – while women was generally found to conform more than men in the past (Bond Smith, 1996), recent studies suggest no gender differences (Rosander Eriksson, 2012), or mixed results in conformity between gender groups (Enjanjan, Zeigler-Hill, Vonk, 2015). Reviewing Gender Differences Women were generally found to conform more than men possibly due to gender roles and the conforming towards such roles during the period (1960s – 1990s) when the experiments took place (Rosander Eriksson, 2012). The social identity of women was arguably more submissive and conforming than present. Good and Sanchez (2010) posited that people conform to gender roles of the society due to intrinsic enjoyment of pulling together an individual’s actual and ideal selves, or due to extrinsic pressure from society. According to the self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, as cited in Gilovich et al., 2013), people are constantly motivated to compare between their actual selves – representing who people truly believe themselves to be – and two other selves, the ideal and ought selves. The former refers to the more positive connotation of people’s ambitions and what others maintain about them; the latter refers to the sense of obligation people feel pressurized to follow. Bond and Smith (1996) meta-analysis seems to substantiate this theory. In retrospect, the review was also done in the 1990s and conformity behaviours might have changed since then. Agreeably, Rosander and Eriksson (2012) found that women did not conform more than men. The study utilized the Asch’s paradigm, but on the internet where participants were not interacting face-to-face with each other. An additional measure of task difficulty (Easy/Difficult) was introduced. The overall conformity result was like Asch’s original study. Additionally, men were found to conform more than women on difficult task (specifically on difficult and logical questions, for details see Rosander Eriksson, 2012). This is corroborated by Enjanjan and colleagues (2015) where men with varying levels of self-esteem were found to conform more on difficult trials. Furthermore, women might not have been more conforming but that men tend to report less conformity depending on the context (Rosander Eriksson, 2012). Recent explanation of why men conform less alludes to the idea that non-conformity portrays uniqueness, thus making an individual stand out and increase prospective opportunities such as leadership roles (Griskevicius, Goldstein, Mortensen, Cialdini, Kenrick, 2006; Rosander Eriksson, 2012). Taken together, the findings suggest no concrete direction of gender difference, and hints a relationship between conformity and self-esteem. Reviewing Self-Esteem in Conformity Following the self-discrepancy theory, conformity towards ascribed norms may increase self-esteem due to inherent positive feelings. Conversely, conforming due to feelings of pressure may induce lower levels of self-esteem (Good Sanchez, 2010; Gilovich et al., 2013). Alternatively, this paper aims to identify if self-esteem levels affect people’s conforming behaviours. One of the main reasons people conform is the desire to fit in or to be correct (i.e. normative and informational social influences, Gilovich et al., 2013). Since these desires are associated with self-esteem (Enjanjan et al., 2016), it is intuitive to think that people with low self-esteem conforms more. Truly, studies converge on the notion that individuals with low self-esteem tend to conform more than individuals with high self-esteem (Enjanjan et al., 2016), possibly to protect their weak sense of self and mitigate the damaging impacts of failure (Ardnt, Schimel, Greenberg, Pyszczynski, 2002). Research on the relationship of gender in self-esteem and conformity remained scarce, with identifiable studies placing self-esteem as the outcome/dependent variable in their study instead of conformity (Good Sanchez, 2010). Due to inconsistencies in the literature, this paper expects a non-directional gender difference in rate of conformity. Next, it is expected that self-esteem is negatively correlated with conformity. Finally, this paper further explores if self-esteem levels between gender groups is differently associated with conformity. Methods Design There were two designs of the study – a between-subject quasi-experimental design for test of group difference and a correlational design for test of association. The independent variable for the former test was gender; the dependent variable was social conformity operationalised as the rate of conformity (out of 12 critical trials) of Asch’s (1956) conformity test. Self-esteem, measured using Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965a), was correlated with the dependent variable. Participants responded to both RSES and the conformity experiment. Participants A total of 22 Participants (8 Males, 14 Females), age ranging from 18 – 25 years (M = 20.7, SD = 2.35 years) were recruited from James Cook University as part of their course requirement PY3102. Majority of the participants (N = 19) were First year students, and the remaining (N = 3) were Second year students. All participants were included in the study as all relevant details were filled up in both the demographics form (Gender, Age, and Year of study in college), and all participants completed the experiment. Materials Asch’s (1956) line judgement task. Microsoft PowerPoint 2016 was used to create the stimuli and presented through in-class overhead projector in James Cook University Singapore, room C2-06. The stimuli (Appendix A) consist of 18 trials of line judgement test, 12 of which were critical trials whereby the researcher recorded responses of the participants. The confederates were told to give wrong responses unanimously on the critical trials. The target lines were copied exactly (copy-paste function) from the correct comparison line while the remaining lines were created such that the correct answer was always obvious. All lines were between 2 – 10 inches (5.08cm – 25.40cm) following the original study. Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES; 1965a). The RSES is a 10-item scale that measures feelings of self-worth by assessing both positive and negative feelings about the self (Rosenberg, 1965b). The items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 are reverse scored. Item scores are summed and higher scores indicate higher self-esteem (Appendix B). The scale was found to have good internal consistency, a = .91, and demonstrated good internal and external validity (Sinclair et al., 2010). Procedure Participants were given an information sheet and were told that their participation is completely voluntary; they could leave at any point in the experiment. Only one participant was present for each experiment. Upon agreeing to informed consent and filling up of the demographics sheet, participants completed the RSES. Participants were told that they were in a group study of visual judgement together with three other confederates, and were assigned to the last seat in the row. The researcher presented the line judgement task on screen (5 metres away) and participants had to answer: â€Å"Which comparison line A, B, or C is the same as the target line?† after responses from all confederates. The confederates were instructed to give unanimous correct responses on trials 1, 2, 6, 10, 15, and 16 (randomly generated order, except for 1 and 2, following Asch’s original study), while incorrect responses for all other trials (critical trials). Only responses from the critical trials were recorded. Finally, participants were debriefed and given the true nature of the experiment. Statistical Analysis IBM SPSS 22 was used to analyse the data. An independent t test was used to test for gender differences and bivariate correlation analysis was used to test for the relationship between self-esteem and the dependent variable. Results The present study explored gender differences in social conformity, and its relationship to self-esteem. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of each group. Contrary to the hypothesis, an independent t test revealed no significant differences between male and female, t(20)= -0.067, p = .947, 95% CI [-0.256, 0.240]. A significant moderate negative correlation was found between self-esteem and social conformity, r(20) = -.58, p = .004, indicating that people with higher self-esteem tend to conform less. Finally, this study further explored if self-esteem levels between males and females would be associated differently with rate of conformity. A bivariate correlation analysis between gender groups indicated differential association with conformity – there was a significant strong negative correlation in the female group, r(12) = -.73, p = .003; there was no significant correlation in the male group, r(6) = -.31, p = .45. Discussion In all, the results revealed no gender differences in rate of conformity, a significantly moderate negative correlation of self-esteem and conformity, and different associations of self-esteem and conformity in males and females – women with higher self-esteem seems to conform less, while there was no significant correlation in men with varying levels of self-esteem. Contrary to previous findings, it appears that males and females do not differ in their rate of conformity. One possible explanation can be that gender roles in the current globalized society are not as prominent and people are more liberal in their social identity, thus blurring the distinction between gender. The result was consistent with the hypothesis of negative correlation of self-esteem and conformity, thus supporting previous findings and the notion that conforming behaviours seem to be a form of defensiveness toward threats to the self (i.e. fear of criticism or judgement by others, feeling excluded etc). Additionally, this paper showed that different levels of self-esteem in males and females are associated with conformity, consistent with Enjanjan et al.’s (2016) findings. It is likely that females with low self-esteem value the desire to be liked by others more than men with low self-esteem, while women with high self-esteem is more confident to make autonomous decisions. Conversely, men probably do not consider conforming behaviours as being impactful to their self-esteem as they may feel that uniqueness is a preferable trait rather than being liked by others. However, it is puzzling that no gender difference emerged overall, but differential associations emerged at var ying levels of self-esteem in males and females. The findings imply that conformity in people may be related more to an individual’s sense of self-worth rather than to gender, and complex interactions may exist between gender groups and self-esteem levels. The findings may be of interest to people working in groups, especially leaders – to identify the tendency for people to conform and therefore impeding productive generation of ideas. Limitations and Future Directions This study is limited due to the small sample size (N = 22), and very low count of male participants (n = 8). Also, all participants were psychology students and they might have guessed the nature of the study. This was controlled by asking for the year of study – with older-year students having the tendency to guess the true nature. Furthermore, due to the quasi-experimental nature, random assignment was not possible thereby confounding the results. Future studies may recruit more participants and include a question at the end of the experiment (â€Å"What is the study about?†) to exclude participants who know the true nature of the study. This was not done in the present study due to restrictive sample size. Perhaps with adjustments to the study and with more advanced statistical procedures, complex interactions between gender, self-esteem, and conformity can be discovered.

Introduction to Accounting & Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to Accounting & Finance - Essay Example is that all the partners can be held liable for the acts of other partners which is done in the name of the firm that they form and a person may be held responsible for acts that he has not committed. (Business guide n.d.) An advantage of this business structure is that there are very little formalities in the establishment of the business and all the partners can pool their expertise and resources for a common purpose and profit sharing. (All business n.d.) Once the capital has been input by the firm, it will take 2 weeks for the raw material to be supplied to the firm and 6 weeks from there to manufacture the raw material and transform it in to finished goods. (Bized n.d.) During the period, i.e. after 2 weeks from the payment of raw material and 6 weeks from the date on receipt of raw material, the goods will be converted in to finished goods. They may face some blockage with the liquidity and the working capital as they have given the customers a credit period of 2 months and the suppliers a credit period of 1 month which means that the customers will take longer to pay for the goods while the suppliers will have to be paid in lesser time, therefore the firm will always be short of cash and will depend on the customers as to when they return the money only then they can produce more goods. This may cause some idle periods in the production as they will have to wait for the payment to be made to them. They can obtain a greater credit period from the suppliers which is longer than the period that they are offering their customers of try and reduce the credit period of the customers through renegotiation which will allow them to generate the cash from its customers and purchase more raw material will enable the production process to go on without any halt and the working capital will be available without interruption in the production. It cannot be said to be a correct representation of the company’s cash position at the end of October. This is because

RESEARCH AND THEORY METHODS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

RESEARCH AND THEORY METHODS - Essay Example In addition, the literature argues that the nature of gender bias changes as women and men mature from elementary school children through adolescence, to college undergraduate and graduate students (Kelley & Parsons, 2000) Given that men and women participate in gender bias behaviours, research provides limited qualitative insight to explain why men and women accept such behaviours in a classroom environment (Fritschner, 2000). This paper compares the perceptions of male and female graduate students regarding the influence of gender in the classroom. Once gender influences are better understood, women and men may also have the opportunity to improve their understanding of each other. Literature Review The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 outlawed discrimination based on several characteristics, including gender. However, long ­standing attitudes, traditions, and practices continued to subtly subjugate minority groups based on race, gender, ethnicity, age, and sexual orientation. As note d by Haslett and Lipman (1997), "As overt, visible discrimination was challenged in the 1960s and 1970s, it became replaced by subtle and covert discrimination" (p. 36). Beginning in the early 1980s, popular research by Sadker and Sadker (1985), Hall and Sandler (1982), and others explored subtle mechanisms that marginalised women in the classroom. As defined by Mary Rowe (1977), gender bias produces "micro inequities" reflecting "everyday interactions in which individuals are often treated differently because of their gender" (Sandler, Silverberg, and Hall, 1996, p.1 0). Haslett and Lipman (1997) observed: Micro inequities are particularly ubiquitous because in each instance the harm seems too small to bother with. In the aggregate, however, they constitute a serious barrier to productivity, advancement, and inclusion. Micro inequities are particularly difficult to respond to because of the face issues involved as well as the seeming "smallness" of each single instance. (p. 38) As summarised by Fassinger (1995), research efforts produce conflicting opinions. For example, Hall and Sandler's widely referenced 1982 report provided anecdotal documentation of gender bias in academia, concluding that gender bias created a "chilly climate" for women in colleges and universities. However, Howard and Henney (1998) dispute the existence of a chilly climate. While Young (2001) explores biases that have an adverse impact on boys, most gender bias research examines the marginalising behaviours committed by men against women. However, gender bias includes more than men marginalising women's efforts. Haslett and Lipman (1997) observed that "women may discriminate against other women through their reluctance to support other women. And women may discriminate against themselves through limiting their own aspirations or an unwillingness to take risks" (pp. 35-36). King (1998) found that women unconsciously favor academic papers based on the assumption that the paper was writte n by a man. Research on gender bias provides a rich assortment of quantitative and anecdotal investigations into the nature and impact of gender bias in academia. As examples, Karp and Yoels (1976) quantified classroom participation among undergraduate and graduate students. Hall and Sandler's chilly classroom reports (Hall & Sandler, 1982) were based primarily on anecdotal research. Jamison (1999) evaluated interviews with more than 340